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In Standards 4 Mins Read

Noise Concatenation in Optical Amplifier Chains

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Optical networks are the backbone of the internet, carrying vast amounts of data over great distances at the speed of light. However, maintaining signal quality over long fiber runs is a challenge due to a phenomenon known as noise concatenation. Let’s delve into how amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise affects Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR) and the performance of optical amplifier chains.

The Challenge of ASE Noise

ASE noise is an inherent byproduct of optical amplification, generated by the spontaneous emission of photons within an optical amplifier. As an optical signal traverses through a chain of amplifiers, ASE noise accumulates, degrading the OSNR with each subsequent amplifier in the chain. This degradation is a crucial consideration in designing long-haul optical transmission systems.

Understanding OSNR

OSNR measures the ratio of signal power to ASE noise power and is a critical parameter for assessing the performance of optical amplifiers. A high OSNR indicates a clean signal with low noise levels, which is vital for ensuring data integrity.

Reference System for OSNR Estimation

As depicted in Figure below), a typical multichannel N span system includes a booster amplifier, N−1 line amplifiers, and a preamplifier. To simplify the estimation of OSNR at the receiver’s input, we make a few assumptions:

Representation of optical line system interfaces (a multichannel N-span system)
  • All optical amplifiers, including the booster and preamplifier, have the same noise figure.
  • The losses of all spans are equal, and thus, the gain of the line amplifiers compensates exactly for the loss.
  • The output powers of the booster and line amplifiers are identical.

Estimating OSNR in a Cascaded System

E1: Master Equation For OSNR

E1: Master Equation For OSNR

Pout is the output power (per channel) of the booster and line amplifiers in dBm, L is the span loss in dB (which is assumed to be equal to the gain of the line amplifiers), GBA is the gain of the optical booster amplifier in dB, NFis the signal-spontaneous noise figure of the optical amplifier in dB, h is Planck’s constant (in mJ·s to be consistent with Pout in dBm), ν is the optical frequency in Hz, νr is the reference bandwidth in Hz (corresponding to c/Br ), N–1 is the total number of line amplifiers.

The OSNR at the receivers can be approximated by considering the output power of the amplifiers, the span loss, the gain of the optical booster amplifier, and the noise figure of the amplifiers. Using constants such as Planck’s constant and the optical frequency, we can derive an equation that sums the ASE noise contributions from all N+1 amplifiers in the chain.

Simplifying the Equation

Under certain conditions, the OSNR equation can be simplified. If the booster amplifier’s gain is similar to that of the line amplifiers, or if the span loss greatly exceeds the booster gain, the equation can be modified to reflect these scenarios. These simplifications help network designers estimate OSNR without complex calculations.

1)          If the gain of the booster amplifier is approximately the same as that of the line amplifiers, i.e., GBA » L, above Equation E1 can be simplified to:

osnr_2

E1-1

2)          The ASE noise from the booster amplifier can be ignored only if the span loss L (resp. the gain of the line amplifier) is much greater than the booster gain GBA. In this case Equation E1-1 can be simplified to:

E1-2

3)          Equation E1-1 is also valid in the case of a single span with only a booster amplifier, e.g., short‑haul multichannel IrDI in Figure 5-5 of [ITU-T G.959.1], in which case it can be modified to:

E1-3

4)          In case of a single span with only a preamplifier, Equation E1 can be modified to:

Practical Implications for Network Design

Understanding the accumulation of ASE noise and its impact on OSNR is crucial for designing reliable optical networks. It informs decisions on amplifier placement, the necessity of signal regeneration, and the overall system architecture. For instance, in a system where the span loss is significantly high, the impact of the booster amplifier on ASE noise may be negligible, allowing for a different design approach.

Conclusion

Noise concatenation is a critical factor in the design and operation of optical networks. By accurately estimating and managing OSNR, network operators can ensure signal quality, minimize error rates, and extend the reach of their optical networks.

In a landscape where data demands are ever-increasing, mastering the intricacies of noise concatenation and OSNR is essential for anyone involved in the design and deployment of optical communication systems.

References

https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G/e

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In Technical 1 Min Read

HD-FEC & SD-FEC differences

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Items HD-FEC SD-FEC
Definition Decoding based on hard-bits(the output is quantized only to two levels) is called the “HD(hard-decision) decoding”, where each bit is considered definitely one or zero. Decoding based on soft-bits(the output is quantized to more than two levels) is called the “SD(soft-decision) decoding”, where not only one or zero decision but also confidence information for the decision are provided.
Application Generally for non-coherent detection optical systems, e.g.,  10 Gbit/s, 40 Gbit/s, also for some coherent detection optical systems with higher OSNR coherent detection optical systems, e.g.,  100 Gbit/s,400 Gbit/s.
Electronics Requirement ADC(Analogue-to-Digital Converter) is not necessary in the receiver. ADC is required in the receiver to provide soft information, e.g.,  coherent detection optical systems.
specification general FEC per [ITU-T G.975];super FEC per [ITU-T G.975.1]. vendor specific
typical scheme Concatenated RS/BCH LDPC(Low density parity check),TPC(Turbo product code)
complexity medium high
redundancy ratio generally 7% around 20%
NCG about 5.6 dB for general FEC;>8.0 dB for super FEC. >10.0 dB
 Example(If you asked your friend about traffic jam status on roads and he replies) maybe fully jammed or free  50-50  but I found othe way free or less traffic

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power
In Interviews 1 Min Read

What is Optical Power Requirement and margin for a optics module’s power?

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Optical power tolerance: It refers to the tolerable limit of input optical power, which is the range from sensitivity to overload point.

Optical power requirement: If refers to the requirement on input optical power, realized by adjusting the system (such as adjustable attenuator, fix attenuator, optical amplifier).

 

Optical power margin: It refers to an acceptable extra range of optical power. For example, “–5/ + 3 dB” requirement is actually a margin requirement.

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nonlinear
In Standards 1 Min Read

How to know if errors are due to linear or non-linear issue in an optical link?

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When the bit error occurs to the system, generally the OSNR at the transmit end is well and the fault is well hidden.
Decrease the optical power at the transmit end at that time. If the number of bit errors decreases at the transmit end, the problem is non-linear problem.
If the number of bit errors increases at the transmit end, the problem is the OSNR degrade problem. 

 

General Causes of Bit Errors

  •  Performance degrade of key boards
  • Abnormal optical power
  • Signal-to-noise ratio decrease
  • Non-linear factor
  • Dispersion (chromatic dispersion/PMD) factor
  • Optical reflection
  • External factors (fiber, fiber jumper, power supply, environment and others)
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edfa
In Infographics 1 Min Read

What are main advantages and drawbacks of EDFAs?

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The main advantages and drawbacks of EDFAs are as follows.

Advantages

  • Commercially available in C band (1,530 to 1,565 nm) and L band (1,560 to 1,605) and up to  84-nm range at the laboratory stage.
  • Excellent coupling: The amplifier medium is an SM fiber;
  • Insensitivity to light polarization state;
  • Low sensitivity to temperature;
  • High gain: > 30 dB with gain flatness < ±0.8 dB and < ±0.5 dB in C and L band, respectively, in the scientific literature and in the manufacturer documentation
  • Low noise figure: 4.5 to 6 dB
  • No distortion at high bit rates;
  • Simultaneous amplification of wavelength division multiplexed signals;
  • Immunity to crosstalk among wavelength multiplexed channels (to a large extent)

Drawbacks

  • Pump laser necessary;
  • Difficult to integrate with other components;
  • Need to use a gain equalizer for multistage amplification;
  • Dropping channels can give rise to errors in surviving channels:dynamic control of amplifiers is  necessary.
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qpsk
In Technical 2 Mins Read

Method to Resolve the Adjacent-Channel Interference in 100G Transmission.

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In a non-coherent WDM system, each optical channel on the line side uses only one binary channel to carry service information. The service transmission rate on each optical channel is called bit rate while the binary channel rate is called baud rate. In this sense, the baud rate was equal to the bit rate. The spectral width of an optical signal is determined by the baud rate. Specifically, the spectral width is linearly proportional to the baud rate, which means a higher baud rate generates a larger spectral width.

  • Baud (pronounced as /bɔ:d/ and abbreviated as “Bd”) is the unit for representing the data communication speed. It indicates the signal changes occurring in every second on a device, for example, a modulator-demodulator (modem). During encoding, one baud (namely, the signal change) actually represents two or more bits. In the current high-speed modulation techniques, each change in a carrier can transmit multiple bits, which makes the baud rate different from the transmission speed.

In practice, the spectral width of the optical signal cannot be larger than the frequency spacing between WDM channels; otherwise, the optical spectrums of the neighboring WDM channels will overlap, causing interference among data streams on different WDM channels and thus generating bit errors and a system penalty.

For example, the spectral width of a 100G BPSK/DPSK signal is about 50 GHz, which means a common 40G BPSK/DPSK modulator is not suitable for a 50 GHz channel spaced 100G system because it will cause a high crosstalk penalty. When the baud rate reaches 100 Gbaud/s, the spectral width of the BPSK/DPSK signal is greater than 50 GHz. Thus, it is impossible to achieve 50 GHz channel spacing in a 100G BPSK/DPSK transmission system.

(This is one reason that BPSK cannot be used in a 100G coherent system. The other reason is that high-speed ADC devices are costly.)

A 100G coherent system must employ new technology. The system must employ more advanced multiplexing technologies so that an optical channel contains multiple binary channels. This reduces the baud rate while keeping the line bit rate unchanged, ensuring that the spectral width is less than 50 GHz even after the line rate is increased to 100 Gbit/s. These multiplexing technologies include quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation and polarization division multiplexing (PDM).

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osnr_dispersion
In Technical 3 Mins Read

Measuring Coherent System OSNR using integral method

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For coherent signals with wide optical spectrum, the traditional scanning method using an OSA or inband polarization method (EXFO) cannot correctly measure system OSNR. Therefore, use the integral method to measure OSNR of coherent signals.

Perform the following operations to measure OSNR using the integral method:

1.Position the central frequency of the wavelength under test in the middle of the screen of an OSA.
2.Select an appropriate bandwidth span for integration (for 40G/100G coherent signals, select 0.4 nm).
3.Read the sum of signal power and noise power within the specified bandwidth. On the OSA, enable the Trace Integ function and read the integral value. As shown in Figure 2, the integral optical      power (P + N) is 9.68 uW.
4.Read the integral noise power within the specified bandwidth. Disable the related laser before testing the integral noise power. Obtain the integral noise power N within the signal bandwidth      specified in step 2. The integral noise power (N) is 29.58 nW.
5.Calculate the integral noise power (n) within the reference noise bandwidth. Generally, the reference noise bandwidth is 0.1 nm. Read the integral power of central frequency within the bandwidth of 0.1 nm. In this example, the integral noise power within the reference noise bandwidth is 7.395 nW.
6.Calculate OSNR. OSNR = 10 x lg{[(P + N) – N]/n}

In this example, OSNR = 10 x log[(9.68 – 0.02958)/0.007395] = 31.156 dB

osnr

 

We follow integral method because Direct OSNR Scanning Cannot Ensure Accuracy because of the following reason:

A 40G/100G signal has a larger spectral width than a 10G signal. As a result, the signal spectrums of adjacent channels overlap each other. This brings difficulties in testing the OSNR using the traditional OSA method, which is implemented based on the interpolation of inter-channel noise that is equivalent to in-band noise. Inter-channel noise power contains not only the ASE noise power but also the signal crosstalk power. Therefore, the OSNR obtained using the traditional OSA method is less than the actual OSNR. The figure below shows the signal spectrums in hybrid transmission of 40G and 10G signals with 50 GHz channel spacing. As shown in the figure, a severe spectrum overlap has occurred and the tested ASE power is greater than it should be .As ROADM and OEQ technologies become mature and are widely used, the use of filter devices will impair the noise spectrum. As shown in the following figure, the noise power between channels decreases remarkably after signals traverse a filter. As a result, the OSNR obtained using the traditional OSA method is greater than the actual OSNR..

 

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In Technical 4 Mins Read

Q and dBQ : A Walkthrough

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Q is the quality of a communication signal and is related to BER. A lower BER gives a higher Q and thus a higher Q gives better performance. Q is primarily used for translating relatively large BER differences into manageable values.

Pre-FEC signal fail and Pre-FEC signal degrade thresholds are provisionable in units of dBQ so that the user does not need to worry about FEC scheme when determining what value to set the thresholds to as the software will automatically convert the dBQ values to FEC corrections per time interval based on FEC scheme and data rate.

The Q-Factor, is in fact a metric to identify the attenuation in the receiving signal and determine a potential LOS and it is an estimate of the Optical-Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (OSNR) at the optical receiver.   As attenuation in the receiving signal increases, the dBQ value drops and vice-versa.  Hence a drop in the dBQ value can mean that there is an increase in the Pre FEC BER, and a possible LOS could occur if the problem is not corrected in time.

The Quality of an Optical Rx signal can be measured by determining the number of “bad” bits in a block of received data.  The bad bits in each block of received data are removed and replaced with “good” zero’s or one’s such that the network path data can still be properly switched and passed on to its destination.  This strategy is referred to as Forward Error Correction (FEC) and prevents a complete loss of traffic due to small un-important data-loss that can be re-sent again later on.  The process by which the “bad” bits are replaced with the “good” bits in an Rx data block is known as Mapping.  The Pre FEC are the FEC Counts of “bad” bits before the Mapper and the FEC Counts (or Post FEC Counts) are those after the Mapper.

The number of Pre FEC Counts for a given period of time can represent the status of the Optical Rx network signal; An increase in the Pre FEC count means that there is an increase in the number of “bad” bits that need to be replaced by the Mapper.  Hence a change in rate of the Pre FEC Count (Bit Erro Rate – BER) can identify a potential problem upstream in the network.  At some point the Pre FEC Count will be too high as there will be too many “bad” bits in the incoming data block for the Mapper to replace … this will then mean a Loss of Signal (LOS).

As the normal number of Pre FEC Counts are high (i.e. 1.35E-3 to 6.11E-16) and constantly fluctuate, it can be difficult for an network operator to determine whether there is a potential problem in the network.  Hence a dBQ value, known as the Q-Factor, is used as a measure of the Quality of the receiving optical signal.  It should be consistent with the Pre FEC Count Bit Error Rate (BER).

The standards define the Q-Factor as Q = 10log[(X1 – X0)/(N1 – N0)] where Xj and Nj are the mean and standard deviation of the received mark-bit (j=1) and space-bit (j=0)  …………….  In some cases Q = 20log[(X1 – X0)/(N1 – N0)]

For example, the linear Q range 3 to 8 covers the BER range of 1.35E-3 to 6.11E-16.

Nortel defines dBQ as 10xlog10(Q/Qref) where Qref is the pre-FEC raw optical Q, which gives a BER of 1E-15 post-FEC assuming a particular error distribution. Some organizations define dBQ as 20xlog10(Q/Qref), so care must be taken when comparing dBQ values from different sources.

The dBQ figure represents the dBQ of margin from the following pre-FEC BERs (which are equivalent to a post-FEC BER of 1E-15). The equivalent linear Q value for these BERs are  Qref in the above formula.

Pre-FEC signal degrade can be used the same way a car has an “oil light” in that it states that there is still margin left but you are closer to the fail point than expected so action should be taken.

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